Update display.c

Added the 95% completely wired up display driver implementation file

Makefile

@@ -1,35 +1,58 @@
 AS = nasm
+ASFLAGS = -f elf32 -g -F dwarf
 CC = gcc
 LD = ld
-QEMU = qemu-system-i386
-IMG_SIZE = 1440k
+QEMU= qemu-system-i386
 
-BOOT_SRC = bootloader/boot.asm
-BOOT_BIN = build/boot.bin
-BOOT_IMG = build/boot.img
-KERNEL_SRC = kernel/kmain.c
-KERNEL_BIN = build/kernel.bin
-DISK_IMG = build/disk.img
+BUILD_DIR = build
+DISK_IMG = $(BUILD_DIR)/disk.img
+STAGE2_SIZE = 2048
 
-all: $(BOOT_IMG) $(KERNEL_BIN) $(DISK_IMG)
+KERNEL_C_SRC = $(wildcard kernel/*.c)
+KERNEL_ASM_SRC = $(wildcard kernel/*.asm)
+KERNEL_OBJ = $(patsubst kernel/%.c, $(BUILD_DIR)/%.o, $(KERNEL_C_SRC))
+KERNEL_OBJ += $(patsubst kernel/%.asm, $(BUILD_DIR)/asm_%.o, $(KERNEL_ASM_SRC))
 
-$(BOOT_BIN): $(BOOT_SRC)
-	$(AS) -f bin -o $@ $<
+all: $(DISK_IMG)
 
-$(BOOT_IMG): $(BOOT_BIN)
-	cp $(BOOT_BIN) $@
-	truncate -s $(IMG_SIZE) $@
+.PHONY: stage1 stage2 kernel run gdb clean
+stage1: $(BUILD_DIR)
+	$(AS) $(ASFLAGS) -o $(BUILD_DIR)/$@.o bootloader/$@.asm
+	$(LD) -Ttext=0x7c00 -melf_i386 -o $(BUILD_DIR)/$@.elf $(BUILD_DIR)/$@.o
+	objcopy -O binary $(BUILD_DIR)/$@.elf $(BUILD_DIR)/$@.bin
 
-$(KERNEL_BIN): $(KERNEL_SRC)
-	$(CC) -ffreestanding -c $< -o build/kernel.o
-	$(LD) -T bootloader/linker.ld -o $@ build/kernel.o
+# NOTE: Stage2 final size should be checked against `$(STAGE2_SIZE)` by the build system to avoid an overflow.
+# Alternatively, convey the final stage2 size through other means to stage1.
+stage2: $(BUILD_DIR)
+	$(AS) $(ASFLAGS) -o $(BUILD_DIR)/stage2.o bootloader/stage2.asm
+	$(CC) -std=c11 -ffreestanding -nostdlib -fno-stack-protector -m32 -g -c -o $(BUILD_DIR)/stage2_load.o bootloader/stage2_load.c
+	$(LD) -Tbootloader/stage2.ld -melf_i386 -o $(BUILD_DIR)/$@.elf $(BUILD_DIR)/stage2.o $(BUILD_DIR)/stage2_load.o
+	objcopy -O binary $(BUILD_DIR)/$@.elf $(BUILD_DIR)/$@.bin
+	truncate -s $(STAGE2_SIZE) $(BUILD_DIR)/$@.bin
 
-$(DISK_IMG): $(BOOT_IMG) $(KERNEL_BIN)
-	dd if=$(BOOT_IMG) of=$@ bs=512 seek=4
-	dd if=$(KERNEL_BIN) of=$@ bs=512 seek=200
+$(BUILD_DIR)/asm_%.o: kernel/%.asm
+	$(AS) $(ASFLAGS) -o $@ $<
 
-run: $(DISK_IMG)
-	$(QEMU) -drive file=$<,format=raw,if=floppy
+$(BUILD_DIR)/%.o: kernel/%.c
+	$(CC) -std=c11 -ffreestanding -nostdlib -fno-stack-protector -m32 -g -c -o $@ $<
+
+kernel: $(KERNEL_OBJ) | $(BUILD_DIR)
+	$(LD) -melf_i386 -Tkernel/linker.ld -o $(BUILD_DIR)/kernel.elf $(KERNEL_OBJ)
+
+$(DISK_IMG): stage1 stage2 kernel
+	dd if=$(BUILD_DIR)/stage1.bin of=$@
+	dd if=$(BUILD_DIR)/stage2.bin of=$@ oflag=append conv=notrunc
+	dd if=$(BUILD_DIR)/kernel.elf of=$@ oflag=append conv=notrunc
+	truncate -s 1M $@
+
+$(BUILD_DIR):
+	mkdir -p $@
+
+run:
+	qemu-system-i386 -s -S $(DISK_IMG)
+
+gdb:
+	gdb -x gdb.txt
 
 clean:
-	rm -rf build
+	rm -rf $(BUILD_DIR)

bootloader/README.md

@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+# ClassicOS 2-stage bootloader
+
+Bootloader documentation for ClassicOS
+
+## Disk image organization:
+
+```
+[  512 B  ] [      2048 B      ] [    Unspecified    ]
+  Stage 1         Stage 2               Kernel
+```
+
+## Stage 1 (`stage1.asm`)
+
+Responsible for loading the second stage using BIOS routines, and switching to protected mode.
+
+- Queries CHS parameters from BIOS
+- Loads the second stage bootloader (2048 B) to `0x7c00`
+- Sets up a GDT with descriptor entries for code and data both covering the whole 32-bit address space
+- Enables A20
+- Set CR0.PE (enable protected mode) and jump to stage 2
+
+## Stage 2 (`stage2.asm, stage2_load.c`)
+
+- Set up segment registers
+- Load the kernel ELF header
+- Parse the program headers, and load all `PT_LOAD` segments from disk
+- Jump to the kernel entry

bootloader/boot1.asm

@@ -1,203 +0,0 @@
-; ==============================================================================
-; boot1.asm - Second Stage Bootloader (Fixed Real Mode Transition)
-; ==============================================================================
-
-[BITS 32]
-global _start
-extern kmain
-
-_start:
-    ; Set up segments
-    mov ax, 0x10
-    mov ds, ax
-    mov es, ax
-    mov fs, ax
-    mov gs, ax
-    mov ss, ax
-
-    ; Stack (must be identity-mapped)
-    mov esp, 0x90000
-
-    ; CPU Feature Detection: check CPUID support
-    pushfd                      ; Save flags
-    pop eax
-    mov ecx, eax
-    xor eax, 1 << 21            ; Flip ID bit
-    push eax
-    popfd
-    pushfd
-    pop eax
-    xor eax, ecx
-    jz .no_cpuid                ; CPUID unsupported if no change
-
-    ; CPUID supported, verify features
-    mov eax, 1
-    cpuid
-    ; Check for paging support (bit 31 of edx)
-    test edx, 1 << 31
-    jz .no_paging_support
-
-    ; Additional CPU feature checks could be added here
-
-    jmp .cpuid_check_done
-
-.no_cpuid:
-    mov si, no_cpuid_msg
-    call print_string_16
-    jmp halt
-
-.no_paging_support:
-    mov si, no_paging_msg
-    call print_string_16
-    jmp halt
-
-.cpuid_check_done:
-
-    ; Temporarily switch back to real mode
-    cli
-    mov eax, cr0
-    and eax, 0x7FFFFFFE        ; Clear PE & PG bits
-    mov cr0, eax
-    jmp 0x18:real_mode_entry
-
-; ----------------------------------------------------------------
-[BITS 16]
-real_mode_entry:
-    ; Real mode for BIOS access (E820, VESA)
-    xor ax, ax
-    mov es, ax
-
-    ; VESA call
-    mov di, VbeControllerInfo
-    mov ax, 0x4F00
-    int 0x10
-    jc vesa_error
-
-    ; E820 memory map
-    xor ebx, ebx
-    mov edx, 0x534D4150
-    mov di, MemoryMapBuffer
-    mov [MemoryMapEntries], dword 0
-
-.e820_loop:
-    mov eax, 0xE820
-    mov ecx, 24
-    int 0x15
-    jc e820_error
-    add di, 24
-    inc dword [MemoryMapEntries]
-    test ebx, ebx
-    jnz .e820_loop
-    jmp e820_done
-
-e820_error:
-    mov si, e820_error_msg
-    call print_string_16
-    jmp halt
-
-vesa_error:
-    mov si, vesa_error_msg
-    call print_string_16
-
-    ; Fallback: set VGA text mode 3 and continue
-    mov ah, 0x00           ; BIOS Set Video Mode function
-    mov al, 0x03           ; VGA 80x25 text mode
-    int 0x10
-
-    ; Clear screen
-    mov ah, 0x06           ; Scroll up function
-    mov al, 0              ; Clear entire screen
-    mov bh, 0x07           ; Text attribute (gray on black)
-    mov cx, 0              ; Upper-left corner
-    mov dx, 0x184F         ; Lower-right corner
-    int 0x10
-
-    jmp e820_done         ; Continue booting without VESA graphics
-
-e820_done:
-    ; Back to protected mode
-    cli
-    mov eax, cr0
-    or eax, 1
-    mov cr0, eax
-    jmp 0x08:protected_entry
-
-; ----------------------------------------------------------------
-[BITS 16]
-print_string_16:
-.loop:
-    lodsb
-    or al, al
-    jz .done
-    mov ah, 0x0E
-    int 0x10
-    jmp .loop
-.done:
-    ret
-
-e820_error_msg db "E820 Failed!", 0
-vesa_error_msg db "VESA Failed!", 0
-no_cpuid_msg db "No CPUID support detected!", 0
-no_paging_msg db "CPU lacks paging support!", 0
-
-; ----------------------------------------------------------------
-[BITS 32]
-protected_entry:
-    ; Paging setup
-    xor eax, eax
-    mov edi, page_directory
-    mov ecx, 1024
-    rep stosd
-    mov edi, page_table
-    rep stosd
-    mov eax, page_table
-    or eax, 0x3
-    mov [page_directory], eax
-    mov ecx, 1024
-    mov edi, page_table
-    mov eax, 0x00000003
-.fill_pages:
-    mov [edi], eax
-    add eax, 0x1000
-    add edi, 4
-    loop .fill_pages
-
-    mov eax, page_directory
-    mov cr3, eax
-    mov eax, cr0
-    or eax, 0x80000000
-    mov cr0, eax
-
-    jmp kmain
-
-halt:
-    cli
-
-.hang:
-    hlt
-    jmp .hang
-
-; ----------------------------------------------------------------
-; Data buffers and variables must be appropriately defined in your data section
-MemoryMapBuffer times 128 db 0          ; 128*24 bytes reserved for E820 memory map (adjust size as needed)
-MemoryMapEntries dd 0
-VbeControllerInfo times 512 db 0        ; Buffer for VESA controller info (adjust size as needed)
-
-; Define page directory and page table aligned as needed (in your data section)
-align 4096
-page_directory times 1024 dd 0
-align 4096
-page_table times 1024 dd 0
-
-%assign pad_size 4096
-%ifdef __SIZE__
-  %define size_current __SIZE__
-%else
-  %define size_current ($ - $$)
-%endif
-
-%if size_current < pad_size
-  times pad_size - size_current db 0
-%endif
-
-checksum_byte db 0

bootloader/linker.ld

@@ -1,26 +0,0 @@
-ENTRY(kmain)
-
-SECTIONS {
-    . = 1M;
-
-    .text : {
-        *(.text*)
-    }
-
-    .rodata : { *(.rodata*) }
-    .data : { *(.data*) }
-    .bss : {
-        *(.bss*)
-        *(COMMON)
-    }
-
-    .stack (NOLOAD) : {
-        . = ALIGN(4);
-        . = . + 0x1000;
-    }
-
-    .heap (NOLOAD) : {
-        . = ALIGN(4);
-        . = . + 0x10000;
-    }
-}

bootloader/stage1.asm

@@ -2,10 +2,16 @@
 ; boot.asm - First Stage Bootloader (CHS Based)
 ; ==============================================================================
 
-[BITS 16]
-[ORG 0x7C00]
+; Params for stage2
+%define s2_addr 1               ; stage2 disk offset, in sectors
+%define s2_laddr 0x7e00         ; stage2 load address
+%define s2_size 2048            ; stage2 size
+%define s2_nsect s2_size / 512  ; stage2 size in sectors
 
-start:
+[BITS 16]
+global _start
+
+_start:
     cli                         ; Disable interrupts
 
     mov [bootdev], dl           ; Save boot device number (from BIOS in DL)
@@ -20,30 +26,16 @@ start:
     mov ds, ax
     mov es, ax
 
+    ; Query bios for disk parameters
+    call get_disk_params
+
     ; Load second-stage bootloader (boot1.asm) to 0x7E00
     mov ax, 1                   ; LBA of boot1.asm (starts at sector 1)
     call lba_to_chs
-    mov si, 0x7E00
-    mov al, 4                   ; Number of sectors to read
+    mov al, s2_nsect            ; Number of sectors to read
+    mov bx, 0x7E00              ; Destination address offset ES = 0 (0x0000:0x7E00)
     call read_chs
 
-    ; Load kernel to 0x100000 (1 MB)
-    mov si, 0x0000              ; Destination offset
-    mov ax, 0x1000              ; ES = 0x1000 (0x1000:0x0000 = 1 MB)
-    mov es, ax
-    xor bx, bx
-    mov ax, 5                   ; LBA of kernel start (boot1 is 4 sectors: LBA 1–4 → kernel at LBA 5)
-    call lba_to_chs
-    mov al, 16                  ; Number of sectors for kernel
-    call read_chs
-    jc disk_error
-
-    ; Memory Validation: Verify checksum of second stage bootloader
-    mov si, 0x7E00             ; Start of second stage
-    mov cx, 512 * 4            ; Size in bytes (adjust if more sectors loaded)
-    call verify_checksum
-    jc disk_error              ; Jump if checksum fails
-
     ; Enable A20 line
     call enable_a20
     jc a20_error                ; Jump if A20 enable fails
@@ -96,17 +88,32 @@ verify_checksum:
     pop ax
     ret
 
+get_disk_params:
+    mov  ah, 08h          ; BIOS: Get Drive Parameters
+    int  13h
+    ; TODO: error checking
+
+    ; CL bits 0–5 contain sectors per track
+    mov  al, cl
+    and  al, 3Fh           ; mask bits 0–5
+    mov  ah, 0
+    mov  [sectors_per_track], ax
+
+    ; DH = maximum head number (0-based)
+    mov  al, dh
+    inc  ax                ; convert to count (heads = maxhead + 1)
+    mov  [heads_per_cylinder], ax
+    ret
+
 ; ----------------------------------------------------------------
 ; CHS Disk Read Routine
 ; AL = number of sectors
 ; CL = starting sector (1-based)
-; SI = destination offset (Segment:ES already set)
 ; Inputs:
 ; AL = sector count
 ; CH = cylinder
 ; DH = head
 ; CL = sector (1–63, with top 2 bits as high cylinder bits)
-; SI = destination offset (segment ES must be set)
 
 ; ----------------------------------------------------------------
 ; Convert LBA to CHS
@@ -118,36 +125,29 @@ verify_checksum:
 ;   CL = sector (1-63, top 2 bits are upper cylinder bits)
 
 lba_to_chs:
-    pusha
-
+    ; Sector
     xor dx, dx
-    mov bx, [sectors_per_track]
-    div bx                     ; AX = LBA / sectors_per_track, DX = remainder (sector number)
-    mov si, ax                 ; SI = temp quotient (track index)
-    mov cx, [heads_per_cylinder]
-    xor dx, dx
-    div cx                     ; AX = cylinder, DX = head
-    mov ch, al                 ; CH = cylinder low byte
-    mov dh, dl                 ; DH = head
+    mov bx, ax
+    div word [sectors_per_track] ; divide lba with max sectors
+    add dl, 1 ; take the remainder, sectors start at 1
+    mov cl, dl ; sector is in cl
 
-    ; Now take sector number from earlier remainder
-    mov cx, si                 ; Copy track index to CX to access CL
-    and cl, 0x3F               ; Mask to 6 bits (sector number)
-    inc cl                     ; Sector numbers are 1-based
+    ; Head
+    mov ax, bx
+    mov dx, 0
+    div word [sectors_per_track] ; divide lba with max sectors
+    mov dx, 0
+    div word [heads_per_cylinder] ; divide quotient with heads
+    mov dh, dl ; take the remainder, head is in dh
 
-    ; Insert upper 2 bits of cylinder into CL
-    mov ah, al                 ; AH = cylinder again
-    and ah, 0xC0               ; Get top 2 bits of cylinder
-    or cl, ah                  ; OR them into sector byte
-
-    popa
+    ; Cylinder
+    mov ch, al ; take the quotient, cylinder is in ch
     ret
 
 read_chs:
     pusha
     push dx
 
-    mov cx, 5
 .retry:
     mov ah, 0x02         ; BIOS: Read sectors
     mov dl, [bootdev]    ; Boot device
@@ -263,7 +263,7 @@ switch_to_pm:
     mov eax, cr0
     or eax, 1
     mov cr0, eax
-    jmp 0x08:0x7E00
+    jmp 0x08:0x7E00             ; jump to S2
 
 ; ----------------------------------------------------------------
 print_string_16:
@@ -285,8 +285,8 @@ halt:
     hlt
 
 bootdev db 0
-sectors_per_track dw 63
-heads_per_cylinder dw 255
+sectors_per_track dw 0
+heads_per_cylinder dw 0
 
 times 510 - ($ - $$) db 0
 dw 0xAA55

bootloader/stage2.asm

@@ -0,0 +1,98 @@
+[BITS 32]
+global _start
+global ata_lba_read
+
+extern load_kernel
+
+_start:
+    ; Set up segments
+    ; Data segments
+    mov ax, 0x10
+    mov ds, ax
+    mov es, ax
+    mov fs, ax
+    mov gs, ax
+    mov ss, ax
+
+    ; Code segment
+    mov ax, 0x08
+    mov cs, ax
+
+    ; Stack (must be identity-mapped)
+    mov esp, 0x90000
+
+    call load_kernel
+
+    jmp eax
+
+; ----------------------------------------------------------------------------
+; ATA read sectors (LBA mode) 
+;
+; sysv32 abi signature:
+; void ata_lba_read(uint32_t lba, uint8_t nsect, void *addr);
+; ----------------------------------------------------------------------------
+ata_lba_read:
+    push ebp
+    mov ebp, esp
+
+    push ebx
+    push ecx
+    push edx
+    push edi
+
+    mov eax, [ebp+8]     ; arg #1 = LBA
+    mov cl, [ebp+12]     ; arg #2 = # of sectors
+    mov edi, [ebp+16]    ; arg #3 = buffer address
+    and eax, 0x0FFFFFFF
+
+    mov ebx, eax         ; Save LBA in RBX
+
+    mov edx, 0x01F6      ; Port to send drive and bit 24 - 27 of LBA
+    shr eax, 24          ; Get bit 24 - 27 in al
+    or al, 11100000b     ; Set bit 6 in al for LBA mode
+    out dx, al
+
+    mov edx, 0x01F2      ; Port to send number of sectors
+    mov al, cl           ; Get number of sectors from CL
+    out dx, al
+
+    mov edx, 0x1F3       ; Port to send bit 0 - 7 of LBA
+    mov eax, ebx         ; Get LBA from EBX
+    out dx, al
+
+    mov edx, 0x1F4       ; Port to send bit 8 - 15 of LBA
+    mov eax, ebx         ; Get LBA from EBX
+    shr eax, 8           ; Get bit 8 - 15 in AL
+    out dx, al
+
+    mov edx, 0x1F5       ; Port to send bit 16 - 23 of LBA
+    mov eax, ebx         ; Get LBA from EBX
+    shr eax, 16          ; Get bit 16 - 23 in AL
+    out dx, al
+
+    mov edx, 0x1F7       ; Command port
+    mov al, 0x20         ; Read with retry.
+    out dx, al
+
+    mov bl, cl          ; Save # of sectors in BL
+
+.wait_drq:
+    mov edx, 0x1F7
+.do_wait_drq:
+    in al, dx
+    test al, 8           ; the sector buffer requires servicing.
+    jz .do_wait_drq      ; keep polling until the sector buffer is ready.
+
+    mov edx, 0x1F0       ; Data port, in and out
+    mov ecx, 256
+    rep insw             ; in to [RDI]
+
+    dec bl               ; are we...
+    jnz .wait_drq        ; ...done?
+
+    pop edi
+    pop edx
+    pop ecx
+    pop ebx
+    pop ebp
+    ret

bootloader/stage2.ld

@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
+SECTIONS {
+    . = 0x7e00;
+
+    .text : { *(.text*) }
+    .rodata : { *(.rodata*) }
+    .data : { *(.data*) }
+
+    .bss : {
+        *(.bss*)
+        *(COMMON)
+    }
+
+    read_buf = .;
+}

bootloader/stage2_load.c

@@ -0,0 +1,118 @@
+#include <stdint.h>
+
+// ELF Ident indexes
+#define EI_NIDENT 16
+
+// Program header types
+#define PT_NULL    0
+#define PT_LOAD    1
+
+// ELF Header (32-bit)
+typedef struct {
+    uint8_t  e_ident[EI_NIDENT];
+    uint16_t e_type;
+    uint16_t e_machine;
+    uint32_t e_version;
+    uint32_t e_entry;     // Entry point
+    uint32_t e_phoff;     // Program header table offset
+    uint32_t e_shoff;     // Section header table offset
+    uint32_t e_flags;
+    uint16_t e_ehsize;
+    uint16_t e_phentsize;
+    uint16_t e_phnum;
+    uint16_t e_shentsize;
+    uint16_t e_shnum;
+    uint16_t e_shstrndx;
+} __attribute__((packed)) Elf32_Ehdr;
+
+// Program Header (32-bit)
+typedef struct {
+    uint32_t p_type;
+    uint32_t p_offset;
+    uint32_t p_vaddr;
+    uint32_t p_paddr;
+    uint32_t p_filesz;
+    uint32_t p_memsz;
+    uint32_t p_flags;
+    uint32_t p_align;
+} __attribute__((packed)) Elf32_Phdr;
+
+// Load an ELF executable into memory.
+static int elf_load(const void* data, void (*load_segment)(uint8_t *vaddr, uint32_t src, uint32_t size)) {
+    const Elf32_Ehdr* header = (const Elf32_Ehdr*)data;
+    const Elf32_Phdr* ph = (const Elf32_Phdr*)((uint8_t*)data + header->e_phoff);
+
+    for (int i = 0; i < header->e_phnum; i++) {
+        if (ph[i].p_type != PT_LOAD)
+            continue;
+
+        uint32_t offset = ph[i].p_offset;
+        uint32_t vaddr = ph[i].p_vaddr;
+        uint32_t filesz = ph[i].p_filesz;
+        uint32_t memsz = ph[i].p_memsz;
+
+        // Copy data segment
+        //load_segment((uint8_t *)vaddr, offset, filesz);
+        load_segment((uint8_t *)vaddr, offset, filesz);
+
+        // Zero remaining BSS (if any)
+        if (memsz > filesz) {
+            uint8_t* bss_start = (uint8_t*)(vaddr + filesz);
+            for (uint32_t j = 0; j < memsz - filesz; j++) {
+                bss_start[j] = 0;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    return header->e_entry;
+}
+
+#define KERN_START_SECT 5
+#define MAX(a, b) ((a)>(b) ? (a) : (b))
+
+extern void ata_lba_read(uint32_t lba, uint8_t nsect, void *addr);
+extern uint8_t read_buf[];
+
+static uint32_t
+total_header_size(const Elf32_Ehdr *header) {
+    uint32_t phend = header->e_phoff + header->e_phentsize*header->e_phnum;
+
+    // Align to 512
+    return (phend + 511) & ~511;
+}
+
+static void read_sectors(uint8_t *vaddr, uint32_t offset, uint32_t size) {
+    // # of sectors to read
+    uint32_t rem_nsect = ((size + 511) & ~511) / 512;
+
+    // Current lba address, offset by the first sector already read
+    uint32_t lba = KERN_START_SECT + offset / 512;
+
+    // Max 255 sectors at a time
+    while (rem_nsect) {
+        uint8_t nsect = rem_nsect > 255 ? 255 : rem_nsect;
+        ata_lba_read(lba, nsect, vaddr);
+
+        vaddr += nsect * 512;
+        rem_nsect -= nsect;
+        lba += nsect;
+    }
+}
+
+void *load_kernel(void) {
+    // Read the first sector
+    ata_lba_read(KERN_START_SECT, 1, read_buf);
+
+    const Elf32_Ehdr* header = (const Elf32_Ehdr*)read_buf;
+
+    // Remaining data size, subtract the first 512B already read
+    uint32_t rem = total_header_size(header) - 512;
+
+    // Read the rest if necessary
+    if (rem)
+        read_sectors(read_buf+512, 512, rem);
+
+    elf_load(read_buf, read_sectors);
+
+    return (void *)header->e_entry;
+}

gdb.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,6 @@
+target remote :1234
+add-symbol-file build/stage1.elf
+add-symbol-file build/stage2.elf
+add-symbol-file build/kernel.elf
+hbreak *0x7c00
+c

kernel/context_switch.s

@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+.global ctx_switch
+
+; void ctx_switch(uint32_t **old_sp_ptr, uint32_t *new_sp);
+; Arguments on stack (cdecl convention):
+; [ESP + 4] -> old_sp_ptr (pointer to the 'stack_ptr' field of current task)
+; [ESP + 8] -> new_sp     (value of 'stack_ptr' of the next task)
+
+ctx_switch:
+    ; 1. Save the context of the CURRENT task
+    pushf               ; Save EFLAGS (CPU status flags)
+    pusha               ; Save all General Purpose Regs (EAX, ECX, EDX, EBX, ESP, EBP, ESI, EDI)
+
+    ; 2. Save the current stack pointer (ESP) into the pointer passed as 1st arg
+    mov eax, [esp + 40] ; Get 1st argument (old_sp_ptr). Offset 40 = 36 (regs) + 4 (ret addr)
+    mov [eax], esp      ; *old_sp_ptr = ESP
+
+    ; 3. Load the stack pointer of the NEW task
+    mov esp, [esp + 44] ; Get 2nd argument (new_sp). Offset 44 = 40 + 4
+
+    ; 4. Restore the context of the NEW task
+    popa                ; Restore all General Purpose Regs
+    popf                ; Restore EFLAGS
+
+    ; 5. Jump to the new task (The 'ret' pops EIP from the new stack)
+    ret

kernel/cpu.c

@@ -5,7 +5,7 @@
 #include "print.h"
 
 void cpuid(uint32_t function, uint32_t *eax, uint32_t *ebx, uint32_t *ecx, uint32_t *edx) {
-    asm volatile (
+    __asm__(
         "cpuid"
         : "=a"(*eax), "=b"(*ebx), "=c"(*ecx), "=d"(*edx)
         : "a"(function)
@@ -32,6 +32,6 @@ void identify_cpu() {
     serial_write("\n");
 
     terminal_write("CPUID max leaf: ");
-    print_hex(eax);  // You must implement this (see below)
+    print_hex(eax, false, false);  // You must implement this (see below)
     terminal_write("\n");
 }

kernel/display.c

@@ -1,36 +1,79 @@
 #include "display.h"
-#include "io.h" // Include your I/O header for port access
+#include "io.h"
 #include "vga.h"
 
 // Initialize the display
 void init_display(void) {
-    // Initialize VGA settings, if necessary
-    // This could involve setting up the VGA mode, etc.
-    set_display_mode(0x13); // Example: Set to 320x200 256-color mode
+    // Initialize the VGA driver. This typically sets up the 80x25 text mode,
+    // clears the screen, and sets the cursor.
+    vga_init();
 }
 
 // Enumerate connected displays
 void enumerate_displays(void) {
-    // This is a simplified example. Actual enumeration may require
-    // reading from specific VGA registers or using BIOS interrupts.
+    // This function is often a complex operation in a real driver.
+    // In this simplified kernel/VGA text mode environment, we use printf
+    // to output a message and rely on the fact that VGA is present.
     
-    // For demonstration, we will just print a message
-    // In a real driver, you would check the VGA registers
-    // to determine connected displays.
-    clear_display();
-    // Here you would typically read from VGA registers to find connected displays
-    // For example, using inb() to read from VGA ports
+    // Clear the display before printing a message
+    vga_clear(vga_entry_color(VGA_COLOR_LIGHT_GREY, VGA_COLOR_BLACK));
+    
+    // Output a simplified enumeration message
+    vga_printf("Display: Standard VGA Text Mode (80x25) Detected.\n");
+    
+    // In a real driver, you would use inb() and outb() with specific VGA ports
+    // to read information (e.g., from the CRTC registers 0x3D4/0x3D5)
+    // to check for display presence or configuration.
 }
 
 // Set the display mode
+// NOTE: Setting arbitrary VGA modes (like 0x13 for 320x200) is very complex
+// and requires writing hundreds of register values, often done via BIOS in
+// real mode. Since we are in protected mode and have a simple text driver,
+// this function is kept simple or treated as a placeholder for full mode changes.
 void set_display_mode(uint8_t mode) {
-    // Set the VGA mode by writing to the appropriate registers
-    outb(VGA_PORT, mode); // Example function to write to a port
+    // Check if the requested mode is a known mode (e.g., VGA Text Mode 3)
+    // For this example, we simply acknowledge the call.
+    // A true mode set would involve complex register sequencing.
+    
+    // The provided vga.c is a Text Mode driver, so a graphical mode set
+    // like 0x13 (320x200 256-color) would break the existing vga_printf functionality.
+    
+    // A simplified text-mode-specific response:
+    if (mode == 0x03) { // Mode 3 is standard 80x25 text mode
+        vga_printf("Display mode set to 80x25 Text Mode (Mode 0x03).\n");
+        vga_init(); // Re-initialize the text mode
+    } else {
+        // Simple I/O example based on the original structure (Caution: Incomplete for full mode set)
+        outb(VGA_PORT, mode); // Example function to write to a port
+        vga_printf("Attempting to set display mode to 0x%x. (Warning: May break current display)\n", mode);
+    }
 }
 
 // Clear the display
 void clear_display(void) {
-    // Clear the display by filling it with a color
-    // This is a placeholder for actual clearing logic
-    // You would typically write to video memory here
+    // Use the VGA driver's clear function, typically clearing to black on light grey
+    // or black on black. We'll use the black on light grey from vga_init for consistency.
+    vga_clear(vga_entry_color(VGA_COLOR_BLACK, VGA_COLOR_LIGHT_GREY));
+    // Reset cursor to 0, 0
+    vga_set_cursor_position(0, 0);
+}
+
+// Helper function to write a string
+void display_write_string(const char* str) {
+    // Use the VGA driver's string writing function
+    vga_write_string(str, my_strlen(str));
+}
+
+// Helper function to print a formatted string
+void display_printf(const char* format, ...) {
+    // Use the VGA driver's printf function
+    va_list args;
+    va_start(args, format);
+    
+    // The vga_printf function already handles the va_list internally,
+    // so we can just call it directly.
+    vga_printf(format, args);
+    
+    va_end(args);
 }

kernel/display.h

@@ -2,13 +2,21 @@
 #define DISPLAY_H
 
 #include <stdint.h>
+#include "vga.h" // Include VGA functions
 
-#define VGA_PORT 0x3C0  // Base port for VGA
+#define VGA_PORT 0x3C0  // Base port for VGA (Often used for general control, though 0x3D4/0x3D5 are used for cursor)
 
 // Function prototypes
 void init_display(void);
 void enumerate_displays(void);
-void set_display_mode(uint8_t mode);
+void set_display_mode(uint8_t mode); // In this context, modes are typically BIOS or VESA modes, which are complex.
+                                      // We'll treat this as a placeholder/simple mode call.
 void clear_display(void);
 
+// New function to write a string using the VGA driver
+void display_write_string(const char* str);
+
+// New function to print a formatted string using the VGA driver
+void display_printf(const char* format, ...);
+
 #endif // DISPLAY_H

kernel/fat12.c

@@ -1,5 +1,184 @@
 #include "fat12.h"
+#include <stddef.h> // for NULL
+
+// --- Globals for Filesystem State ---
+static fat12_bpb_t bpb;
+static uint32_t fat_start_lba;
+static uint32_t root_dir_lba;
+static uint32_t data_start_lba;
+static uint32_t root_dir_sectors;
+
+// Scratch buffer to read sectors (avoids large stack usage)
+static uint8_t g_sector_buffer[FAT12_SECTOR_SIZE];
+
+// --- Utils (Since we don't have string.h) ---
+static int k_memcmp(const void *s1, const void *s2, uint32_t n) {
+    const uint8_t *p1 = (const uint8_t *)s1;
+    const uint8_t *p2 = (const uint8_t *)s2;
+    for (uint32_t i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+        if (p1[i] != p2[i]) return p1[i] - p2[i];
+    }
+    return 0;
+}
+
+// Converts "file.txt" to "FILE    TXT" for comparison
+static void to_fat_name(const char *src, char *dest) {
+    // Initialize with spaces
+    for(int i=0; i<11; i++) dest[i] = ' ';
+
+    int i = 0, j = 0;
+    // Copy Name
+    while (src[i] != '\0' && src[i] != '.' && j < 8) {
+        // Convert to uppercase (simple version)
+        char c = src[i];
+        if (c >= 'a' && c <= 'z') c -= 32; 
+        dest[j++] = c;
+        i++;
+    }
+    
+    // Skip extension dot
+    if (src[i] == '.') i++;
+
+    // Copy Extension
+    j = 8;
+    while (src[i] != '\0' && j < 11) {
+        char c = src[i];
+        if (c >= 'a' && c <= 'z') c -= 32;
+        dest[j++] = c;
+        i++;
+    }
+}
+
+// --- Core Logic ---
 
 void fat12_init() {
-    // Filesystem initialization code
+    // 1. Read Boot Sector (LBA 0)
+    disk_read_sector(0, g_sector_buffer);
+
+    // 2. Copy BPB data safely
+    // We cast the buffer to our struct
+    fat12_bpb_t *boot_sector = (fat12_bpb_t*)g_sector_buffer;
+    bpb = *boot_sector;
+
+    // 3. Calculate System Offsets
+    fat_start_lba  = bpb.reserved_sectors;
+    
+    // Root Dir starts after FATs
+    // LBA = Reserved + (FatCount * SectorsPerFat)
+    root_dir_lba   = fat_start_lba + (bpb.fat_count * bpb.sectors_per_fat);
+    
+    // Calculate size of Root Directory in sectors
+    // (Entries * 32 bytes) / 512
+    root_dir_sectors = (bpb.dir_entries_count * 32 + FAT12_SECTOR_SIZE - 1) / FAT12_SECTOR_SIZE;
+
+    // Data starts after Root Directory
+    data_start_lba = root_dir_lba + root_dir_sectors;
+}
+
+// Helper: Read the FAT table to find the NEXT cluster
+static uint16_t fat12_get_next_cluster(uint16_t current_cluster) {
+    // FAT12 Offset Calculation:
+    // Offset = Cluster + (Cluster / 2)
+    uint32_t fat_offset = current_cluster + (current_cluster / 2);
+    
+    uint32_t fat_sector = fat_start_lba + (fat_offset / FAT12_SECTOR_SIZE);
+    uint32_t ent_offset = fat_offset % FAT12_SECTOR_SIZE;
+
+    // Read the sector containing the FAT entry
+    disk_read_sector(fat_sector, g_sector_buffer);
+
+    // Read 16 bits (2 bytes)
+    // Note: If ent_offset == 511, the entry spans two sectors. 
+    // For simplicity in this snippet, we ignore that edge case (rare).
+    // A robust kernel would check if(ent_offset == 511) and read next sector.
+    
+    uint16_t val = *(uint16_t*)&g_sector_buffer[ent_offset];
+
+    if (current_cluster & 1) {
+        return val >> 4;      // Odd: High 12 bits
+    } else {
+        return val & 0x0FFF;  // Even: Low 12 bits
+    }
+}
+
+file_t fat12_open(const char *filename) {
+    file_t file = {0};
+    char target_name[11];
+    to_fat_name(filename, target_name);
+
+    // Search Root Directory
+    for (uint32_t i = 0; i < root_dir_sectors; i++) {
+        disk_read_sector(root_dir_lba + i, g_sector_buffer);
+
+        fat12_entry_t *entry = (fat12_entry_t*)g_sector_buffer;
+
+        // Check all 16 entries in this sector (512 / 32 = 16)
+        for (int j = 0; j < 16; j++) {
+            if (entry[j].filename[0] == 0x00) return file; // End of Dir
+            
+            // Check if filename matches
+            if (k_memcmp(entry[j].filename, target_name, 11) == 0) {
+                // Found it!
+                file.start_cluster = entry[j].low_cluster_num;
+                file.size = entry[j].file_size;
+                
+                // Initialize file cursor
+                file.current_cluster = file.start_cluster;
+                file.bytes_read = 0;
+                return file;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    
+    // Not found (file.start_cluster will be 0)
+    return file;
+}
+
+uint32_t fat12_read(file_t *file, uint8_t *buffer, uint32_t bytes_to_read) {
+    if (file->start_cluster == 0) return 0; // File not open
+
+    uint32_t total_read = 0;
+
+    while (bytes_to_read > 0) {
+        // Check for EOF marker in FAT12 (>= 0xFF8)
+        if (file->current_cluster >= 0xFF8) break;
+
+        // Calculate Physical LBA of current cluster
+        // LBA = DataStart + ((Cluster - 2) * SectorsPerCluster)
+        uint32_t lba = data_start_lba + ((file->current_cluster - 2) * bpb.sectors_per_cluster);
+
+        // Read the cluster
+        // NOTE: Assumes SectorsPerCluster = 1 (Standard Floppy)
+        disk_read_sector(lba, g_sector_buffer);
+
+        // Determine how much to copy from this sector
+        uint32_t chunk_size = FAT12_SECTOR_SIZE;
+        
+        // If the file is smaller than a sector, or we are at the end
+        if (chunk_size > bytes_to_read) chunk_size = bytes_to_read;
+        
+        // Check if we are reading past file size
+        if (file->bytes_read + chunk_size > file->size) {
+            chunk_size = file->size - file->bytes_read;
+        }
+
+        // Copy to user buffer
+        for (uint32_t i = 0; i < chunk_size; i++) {
+            buffer[total_read + i] = g_sector_buffer[i];
+        }
+
+        total_read += chunk_size;
+        file->bytes_read += chunk_size;
+        bytes_to_read -= chunk_size;
+
+        // If we finished this cluster, move to the next one
+        if (chunk_size == FAT12_SECTOR_SIZE) { // Or strictly logic based on position
+             file->current_cluster = fat12_get_next_cluster(file->current_cluster);
+        } else {
+            // We finished the file or the request
+            break;
+        }
+    }
+
+    return total_read;
 }

kernel/fat12.h

@@ -1,47 +1,67 @@
 #ifndef FAT12_H
 #define FAT12_H
 
-#include <stdint.h> /* Include standard integer types */
-#include <stdio.h>  /* Include standard I/O library */
-#include <stdlib.h> /* Include standard library */
+#include <stdint.h>
 
-#define FAT12_SECTOR_SIZE 512 /* Sector size for FAT12 */
-#define FAT12_MAX_FILES 128 /* Maximum number of files in root directory */
-#define FAT12_ROOT_DIR_SECTORS 1 /* Number of sectors for root directory */
+// --- Configuration ---
+#define FAT12_SECTOR_SIZE 512
 
+// --- On-Disk Structures (Must be Packed) ---
+
+// BIOS Parameter Block (Start of Boot Sector)
 typedef struct {
-    uint8_t jump[3]; /* Jump instruction for boot */
-    char oem[8]; /* OEM name */
-    uint16_t bytes_per_sector; /* Bytes per sector */
-    uint8_t sectors_per_cluster; /* Sectors per cluster */
-    uint16_t reserved_sectors; /* Reserved sectors count */
-    uint8_t num_fats; /* Number of FATs */
-    uint16_t max_root_dir_entries; /* Max entries in root directory */
-    uint16_t total_sectors; /* Total sectors */
-    uint8_t media_descriptor; /* Media descriptor */
-    uint16_t fat_size; /* Size of each FAT */
-    uint16_t sectors_per_track; /* Sectors per track */
-    uint16_t num_heads; /* Number of heads */
-    uint32_t hidden_sectors; /* Hidden sectors count */
-    uint32_t total_sectors_large; /* Total sectors for large disks */
-} __attribute__((packed)) FAT12_BootSector; /* Packed structure for boot sector */
+    uint8_t  jump[3];
+    char     oem[8];
+    uint16_t bytes_per_sector;    // 512
+    uint8_t  sectors_per_cluster; // 1
+    uint16_t reserved_sectors;    // 1 (Boot sector)
+    uint8_t  fat_count;           // 2
+    uint16_t dir_entries_count;   // 224
+    uint16_t total_sectors;       // 2880
+    uint8_t  media_descriptor;    // 0xF0
+    uint16_t sectors_per_fat;     // 9
+    uint16_t sectors_per_track;   // 18
+    uint16_t heads;               // 2
+    uint32_t hidden_sectors;
+    uint32_t total_sectors_large;
+} __attribute__((packed)) fat12_bpb_t;
 
+// Directory Entry (32 bytes)
 typedef struct {
-    char name[11]; /* File name (8.3 format) */
-    uint8_t attr; /* File attributes */
-    uint16_t reserved; /* Reserved */
-    uint16_t time; /* Time of last write */
-    uint16_t date; /* Date of last write */
-    uint16_t start_cluster; /* Starting cluster number */
-    uint32_t file_size; /* File size in bytes */
-} __attribute__((packed)) FAT12_DirEntry; /* Directory entry structure */
+    char     filename[8];
+    char     ext[3];
+    uint8_t  attributes;
+    uint8_t  reserved;
+    uint8_t  creation_ms;
+    uint16_t creation_time;
+    uint16_t creation_date;
+    uint16_t last_access_date;
+    uint16_t high_cluster_num; // Always 0 in FAT12
+    uint16_t last_mod_time;
+    uint16_t last_mod_date;
+    uint16_t low_cluster_num;  // The starting cluster
+    uint32_t file_size;        // Size in bytes
+} __attribute__((packed)) fat12_entry_t;
 
-void initialize_fat12(const char *disk_image); /* Function to initialize FAT12 */
-void read_fat12(const char *disk_image); /* Function to read FAT12 */
-void write_fat12(const char *disk_image); /* Function to write FAT12 */
-void list_files(const char *disk_image); /* Function to list files in root directory */
-void read_file(const char *disk_image, const char *filename); /* Function to read a file */
-void write_file(const char *disk_image, const char *filename, const uint8_t *data, size_t size); /* Function to write a file */
+// --- Kernel File Handle ---
+// This is what your kernel uses to track an open file
+typedef struct {
+    char     name[11];
+    uint32_t size;
+    uint16_t start_cluster;
+    uint16_t current_cluster;
+    uint32_t current_sector_in_cluster;
+    uint32_t bytes_read;
+} file_t;
 
-#endif 
-/* FAT12_H */
+// --- Public API ---
+
+// You must implement this in your disk driver (e.g., floppy.c)
+// Returns 0 on success, non-zero on error.
+extern int disk_read_sector(uint32_t lba, uint8_t *buffer);
+
+void fat12_init();
+file_t fat12_open(const char *filename);
+uint32_t fat12_read(file_t *file, uint8_t *buffer, uint32_t bytes_to_read);
+
+#endif // FAT12_H

kernel/framebuffer.c

@@ -0,0 +1,92 @@
+#include "framebuffer.h"
+#include <stddef.h>
+#include <stdint.h>
+
+// Simple init
+void framebuffer_init(framebuffer_t *fb, void *base, uint32_t width, uint32_t height, uint32_t pitch, uint8_t bpp) {
+    fb->base = base;
+    fb->width = width;
+    fb->height = height;
+    fb->pitch = pitch;
+    fb->bpp = bpp;
+    fb->initialized = true;
+}
+
+// Pack color into 32-bit value. Format: 0xAARRGGBB
+uint32_t framebuffer_pack_color(uint8_t r, uint8_t g, uint8_t b, uint8_t a) {
+    return ((uint32_t)a << 24) | ((uint32_t)r << 16) | ((uint32_t)g << 8) | (uint32_t)b;
+}
+
+void framebuffer_put_pixel(framebuffer_t *fb, uint32_t x, uint32_t y, uint8_t r, uint8_t g, uint8_t b, uint8_t a) {
+    if (!fb->initialized) return;
+    if (x >= fb->width || y >= fb->height) return;
+    if (fb->bpp != 32) return; // only 32bpp implemented here
+
+    uint8_t *line = (uint8_t*)fb->base + (size_t)y * fb->pitch;
+    uint32_t *pixel = (uint32_t*)(line + x * 4);
+    *pixel = framebuffer_pack_color(r, g, b, a);
+}
+
+void framebuffer_clear(framebuffer_t *fb, uint8_t r, uint8_t g, uint8_t b) {
+    if (!fb->initialized) return;
+    if (fb->bpp != 32) return;
+
+    uint32_t color = framebuffer_pack_color(r,g,b,0xFF);
+    for (uint32_t y = 0; y < fb->height; ++y) {
+        uint32_t *row = (uint32_t*)((uint8_t*)fb->base + (size_t)y * fb->pitch);
+        for (uint32_t x = 0; x < fb->width; ++x) {
+            row[x] = color;
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+void framebuffer_fill_rect(framebuffer_t *fb, uint32_t x, uint32_t y, uint32_t w, uint32_t h, uint8_t r, uint8_t g, uint8_t b) {
+    if (!fb->initialized) return;
+    if (fb->bpp != 32) return;
+
+    if (x >= fb->width || y >= fb->height) return;
+    if (x + w > fb->width) w = fb->width - x;
+    if (y + h > fb->height) h = fb->height - y;
+
+    uint32_t color = framebuffer_pack_color(r,g,b,0xFF);
+    for (uint32_t yy = 0; yy < h; ++yy) {
+        uint32_t *row = (uint32_t*)((uint8_t*)fb->base + (size_t)(y + yy) * fb->pitch) + x;
+        for (uint32_t xx = 0; xx < w; ++xx) {
+            row[xx] = color;
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+// Simple blit from a source buffer with 32bpp pixels and given pitch (bytes per line)
+void framebuffer_blit(framebuffer_t *fb, uint32_t dst_x, uint32_t dst_y, const void *src, uint32_t src_w, uint32_t src_h, uint32_t src_pitch) {
+    if (!fb->initialized) return;
+    if (fb->bpp != 32) return;
+
+    if (dst_x >= fb->width || dst_y >= fb->height) return;
+
+    uint32_t copy_w = src_w;
+    uint32_t copy_h = src_h;
+    if (dst_x + copy_w > fb->width) copy_w = fb->width - dst_x;
+    if (dst_y + copy_h > fb->height) copy_h = fb->height - dst_y;
+
+    const uint8_t *s = (const uint8_t*)src;
+    for (uint32_t yy = 0; yy < copy_h; ++yy) {
+        uint32_t *dst_row = (uint32_t*)((uint8_t*)fb->base + (size_t)(dst_y + yy) * fb->pitch) + dst_x;
+        const uint32_t *src_row = (const uint32_t*)(s + (size_t)yy * src_pitch);
+        for (uint32_t xx = 0; xx < copy_w; ++xx) {
+            dst_row[xx] = src_row[xx];
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+void framebuffer_test_pattern(framebuffer_t *fb) {
+    if (!fb->initialized) return;
+    // simple color bars
+    uint32_t band_h = fb->height / 6;
+    framebuffer_fill_rect(fb, 0, 0, fb->width, band_h, 0xFF, 0x00, 0x00); // red
+    framebuffer_fill_rect(fb, 0, band_h, fb->width, band_h, 0x00, 0xFF, 0x00); // green
+    framebuffer_fill_rect(fb, 0, band_h*2, fb->width, band_h, 0x00, 0x00, 0xFF); // blue
+    framebuffer_fill_rect(fb, 0, band_h*3, fb->width, band_h, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0x00); // yellow
+    framebuffer_fill_rect(fb, 0, band_h*4, fb->width, band_h, 0xFF, 0x00, 0xFF); // magenta
+    framebuffer_fill_rect(fb, 0, band_h*5, fb->width, fb->height - band_h*5, 0x00, 0xFF, 0xFF); // cyan
+}

kernel/framebuffer.h

@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+#ifndef FRAMEBUFFER_H
+#define FRAMEBUFFER_H
+
+#include <stddef.h>
+#include <stdint.h>
+#include <stdbool.h>
+
+typedef struct {
+    void *base;
+    uint32_t width;
+    uint32_t height;
+    uint32_t pitch;
+    uint8_t bpp;
+    bool initialized;
+} framebuffer_t;
+
+void framebuffer_init(framebuffer_t *fb, void *base, uint32_t width, uint32_t height, uint32_t pitch, uint8_t bpp);
+uint32_t framebuffer_pack_color(uint8_t r, uint8_t g, uint8_t b, uint8_t a);
+void framebuffer_put_pixel(framebuffer_t *fb, uint32_t x, uint32_t y, uint8_t r, uint8_t g, uint8_t b, uint8_t a);
+void framebuffer_clear(framebuffer_t *fb, uint8_t r, uint8_t g, uint8_t b);
+void framebuffer_fill_rect(framebuffer_t *fb, uint32_t x, uint32_t y, uint32_t w, uint32_t h, uint8_t r, uint8_t g, uint8_t b);
+void framebuffer_blit(framebuffer_t *fb, uint32_t dst_x, uint32_t dst_y, const void *src, uint32_t src_w, uint32_t src_h, uint32_t src_pitch);
+void framebuffer_test_pattern(framebuffer_t *fb);
+
+#endif /* FRAMEBUFFER_H */

kernel/idt.c

@@ -52,7 +52,7 @@ void idt_set_gate(int n, uint32_t handler) {
 
 // Load IDT via lidt
 static void idt_load() {
-    asm volatile("lidt (%0)" : : "r" (&idt_ptr));
+    __asm__("lidt (%0)" : : "r" (&idt_ptr));
 }
 
 // IDT initialization

kernel/io.h

@@ -4,12 +4,32 @@
 #include <stdint.h>
 
 static inline void outb(uint16_t port, uint8_t val) {
-    asm volatile ("outb %0, %1" : : "a"(val), "Nd"(port));
+    __asm__("outb %0, %1" : : "a"(val), "Nd"(port));
 }
 
 static inline uint8_t inb(uint16_t port) {
     uint8_t ret;
-    asm volatile ("inb %1, %0" : "=a"(ret) : "Nd"(port));
+    __asm__("inb %1, %0" : "=a"(ret) : "Nd"(port));
+    return ret;
+}
+
+static inline void outw(uint16_t port, uint16_t val) {
+    __asm__("outw %0, %1" : : "a"(val), "Nd"(port));
+}
+
+static inline uint16_t inw(uint16_t port) {
+    uint16_t ret;
+    __asm__("inw %1, %0" : "=a"(ret) : "Nd"(port));
+    return ret;
+}
+
+static inline void outl(uint16_t port, uint32_t val) {
+    __asm__("outl %0, %1" : : "a"(val), "Nd"(port));
+}
+
+static inline uint32_t inl(uint16_t port) {
+    uint32_t ret;
+    __asm__("inl %1, %0" : "=a"(ret) : "Nd"(port));
     return ret;
 }
 

kernel/irq.c

@@ -1,5 +1,76 @@
+#include "idt.h"
 #include "irq.h"
+#include "io.h"
+#include "isr.h"
 
-void irq_init() {
-    // IRQ initialization code
+#define PIC1_CMD   0x20
+#define PIC1_DATA  0x21
+#define PIC2_CMD   0xA0
+#define PIC2_DATA  0xA1
+
+// FIXME: stubs
+void irq0() {}
+void irq1() {}
+void irq2() {}
+void irq3() {}
+void irq4() {}
+void irq5() {}
+void irq6() {}
+void irq7() {}
+void irq8() {}
+void irq9() {}
+void irq10() {}
+void irq11() {}
+void irq12() {}
+void irq13() {}
+void irq14() {}
+void irq15() {}
+// --- stubs end
+
+void irq_remap(void)
+{
+    outb(PIC1_CMD, 0x11);   // ICW1 – edge triggered, cascade, need ICW4
+    outb(PIC2_CMD, 0x11);
+
+    outb(PIC1_DATA, 0x20);  // ICW2 – master base vector
+    outb(PIC2_DATA, 0x28);  // ICW2 – slave base vector
+
+    outb(PIC1_DATA, 0x04);  // ICW3 – slave on IRQ2
+    outb(PIC2_DATA, 0x02);  // ICW3 – cascade identity
+
+    outb(PIC1_DATA, 0x01);  // ICW4 – 8086 mode
+    outb(PIC2_DATA, 0x01);
+
+    // Mask everything except IRQ0 (timer) and IRQ1 (keyboard) for now
+    outb(PIC1_DATA, 0b11111001);
+    outb(PIC2_DATA, 0xFF);
+}
+
+void irq_install(void)
+{
+    irq_remap();
+
+    /* Fill IRQ entries in the IDT (0x20 … 0x2F) */
+    //extern void irq0(), irq1(), irq2(), irq3(), irq4(), irq5(), irq6(), irq7();
+    //extern void irq8(), irq9(), irq10(), irq11(), irq12(), irq13(), irq14(), irq15();
+
+    idt_set_gate(0x20, (uint32_t)irq0);
+    idt_set_gate(0x21, (uint32_t)irq1);
+    /* … repeat for the rest or loop … */
+    for (int i = 2; i < 16; ++i)
+        idt_set_gate(0x20 + i, (uint32_t)irq0 + i * 8); // crude but works
+}
+
+/* Called from the assembly stubs (see irq.asm below) */
+void irq_handler(uint32_t int_num)
+{
+    /* int_num is the *remapped* vector, e.g. 0x21 for keyboard */
+    if (interrupt_handlers[int_num]) {
+        interrupt_handlers[int_num]();
+    }
+
+    /* ---- EOI ---- */
+    if (int_num >= 0x28)          // slave PIC
+        outb(PIC2_CMD, 0x20);
+    outb(PIC1_CMD, 0x20);         // always master
 }

kernel/irq.h

@@ -1,6 +1,10 @@
 #ifndef IRQ_H
 #define IRQ_H
 
-void irq_init();
+#include "types.h"
 
-#endif // IRQ_H
+void irq_remap(void);
+void irq_install(void);
+void irq_handler(uint32_t int_num);
+
+#endif

kernel/isr.asm

@@ -1,8 +1,8 @@
 [BITS 32]
-[GLOBAL isr0, isr1, isr2, isr3, isr4, isr5, isr6, isr7, isr8, isr9]
-[GLOBAL isr10, isr11, isr12, isr13, isr14, isr15, isr16, isr17, isr18, isr19]
-[GLOBAL isr20, isr21, isr22, isr23, isr24, isr25, isr26, isr27, isr28, isr29]
-[GLOBAL isr30, isr31, isr_default]
+GLOBAL isr0, isr1, isr2, isr3, isr4, isr5, isr6, isr7, isr8, isr9
+GLOBAL isr10, isr11, isr12, isr13, isr14, isr15, isr16, isr17, isr18, isr19
+GLOBAL isr20, isr21, isr22, isr23, isr24, isr25, isr26, isr27, isr28, isr29
+GLOBAL isr30, isr31, isr_default
 
 [EXTERN isr_handler]
 

kernel/isr.c

@@ -2,20 +2,20 @@
 #include "serial.h"
 #include "isr.h"
 #include "io.h"
-#include "utils.h"
+#include "print.h"
 
-static isr_callback_t interrupt_handlers[MAX_INTERRUPTS] = { 0 };
+isr_callback_t interrupt_handlers[MAX_INTERRUPTS] = { 0 };
 
 void isr_handler(uint32_t int_num, uint32_t err_code) {
     terminal_write("Interrupt occurred: ");
 
-    print_hex(int_num);
+    print_hex(int_num, true, false);
     terminal_write("\n");
 
     serial_write("INT triggered\n");
 
     terminal_write("Error code: ");
-    print_hex(err_code);
+    print_hex(err_code, true, false);
     terminal_write("\n");
 
     if (interrupt_handlers[int_num]) {
@@ -33,7 +33,7 @@ void isr_handler(uint32_t int_num, uint32_t err_code) {
 
         // Halt CPU
         while (1) {
-            asm volatile ("hlt");
+            __asm__("hlt");
         }
     }
 

kernel/isr.h

@@ -6,6 +6,7 @@
 #define MAX_INTERRUPTS 256
 
 typedef void (*isr_callback_t)(void);
+extern isr_callback_t interrupt_handlers[MAX_INTERRUPTS];
 
 void isr_handler(uint32_t int_num, uint32_t err_code);
 void register_interrupt_handler(uint8_t n, isr_callback_t handler);

kernel/keyboard.c

@@ -4,8 +4,12 @@
 #include "terminal.h"
 
 #define KEYBOARD_DATA_PORT 0x60
+#define KEY_BUFFER_SIZE 256
 
-static char key_buffer[256];
+static char key_buffer[KEY_BUFFER_SIZE];
+static uint8_t buffer_head = 0;  // Write position (interrupt)
+static uint8_t buffer_tail = 0;  // Read position (get_char)
+static uint8_t buffer_count = 0;
 static uint8_t buffer_index = 0;
 
 // Basic US QWERTY keymap (scancode to ASCII)
@@ -21,39 +25,41 @@ static const char scancode_map[128] = {
 
 // Interrupt handler for IRQ1
 void keyboard_callback(void) {
-    uint8_t scancode = inb(0x60);
+    uint8_t scancode = inb(KEYBOARD_DATA_PORT);
 
-    // Only handle key press (ignore key release)
-    if (!(scancode & 0x80)) {
-        char c = scancode_map[scancode];
-        if (c && buffer_index < sizeof(key_buffer) - 1) {
-            key_buffer[buffer_index++] = c;
-            terminal_putchar(c);
-        }
-    }
+    if (scancode & 0x80) return;  // Ignore key release
 
-    // Send End of Interrupt (EOI) to the PIC
-    outb(0x20, 0x20);
+    char c = scancode_map[scancode];
+    if (!c) return;
+
+    uint8_t next_head = (buffer_head + 1) % KEY_BUFFER_SIZE;
+
+    // Drop key if buffer full
+    if (next_head == buffer_tail) return;
+
+    key_buffer[buffer_head] = c;
+    buffer_head = next_head;
+    buffer_count++;
+
+    terminal_putchar(c);
 }
 
-
 void keyboard_init() {
     register_interrupt_handler(33, keyboard_callback); // IRQ1 = int 33 (0x21)
 }
 
 // Blocking read (returns one char)
-char keyboard_get_char() {
-    while (buffer_index == 0); // Busy wait
+char keyboard_get_char(void) {
+    while (buffer_count == 0) {
+        __asm__ __volatile__("hlt");  // Better than busy loop
+    }
 
     char c;
     __asm__ __volatile__("cli");
-    c = key_buffer[0];
-    for (uint8_t i = 1; i < buffer_index; i++) {
-        key_buffer[i - 1] = key_buffer[i];
-    }
-    buffer_index--;
+    c = key_buffer[buffer_tail];
+    buffer_tail = (buffer_tail + 1) % KEY_BUFFER_SIZE;
+    buffer_count--;
     __asm__ __volatile__("sti");
 
     return c;
 }
-

kernel/kmain.c

@@ -1,5 +1,4 @@
 #include <stdint.h>
-#include <stdbool.h>
 #include "io.h"
 #include "serial.h"
 #include "terminal.h"
@@ -9,9 +8,11 @@
 #include "gdt.h"
 #include "cpu.h"
 #include "kmalloc.h"
+#include "print.h"
 #include "timer.h"
 #include "utils.h"
 #include "keyboard.h"
+#include "irq.h"
 
 #define LPT1 0x378
 
@@ -41,6 +42,9 @@ void kmain(void) {
     idt_init();
     serial_write("IDT initialized.\n");
 
+    irq_install();
+    __asm__ __volatile__ ("sti");
+
     terminal_write("Enabling paging...\n");
     paging_init();
     serial_write("Paging initialized.\n");
@@ -69,9 +73,9 @@ void kmain(void) {
     char buf[32];
     for (uint32_t i = 0; i < mmap_size; i++) {
         terminal_write(" - Base: ");
-        print_hex((uint32_t)(mmap[i].base_addr & 0xFFFFFFFF));  // Lower 32 bits
+        print_hex((uint32_t)(mmap[i].base_addr & 0xFFFFFFFF), true, false);  // Lower 32 bits
         terminal_write(", Length: ");
-        print_hex((uint32_t)(mmap[i].length & 0xFFFFFFFF));     // Lower 32 bits
+        print_hex((uint32_t)(mmap[i].length & 0xFFFFFFFF), true, false);     // Lower 32 bits
         terminal_write(", Type: ");
         itoa(mmap[i].type, buf, 10);
         terminal_write(buf);
@@ -82,6 +86,6 @@ void kmain(void) {
 
     // Halt CPU in loop
     while (1) {
-        asm volatile("hlt");
+        __asm__("hlt");
     }
 }

kernel/kmalloc.c

@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 #include "kmalloc.h"
 #include "terminal.h"  // Optional: for debug output
 
-#define HEAP_END 0xC0100000
+#define HEAP_END 0xC0500000
 
 static uint32_t current_heap = 0;
 

kernel/linker.ld

@@ -1,31 +1,26 @@
-ENTRY(_start)
+ENTRY(kmain)
 
 SECTIONS {
     . = 1M;
 
-    .multiboot : {
-        *(.multiboot)
-    }
-
     .text : {
-        *(.text)
-    }
-
-    .rodata : {
-        *(.rodata)
-    }
-
-    .data : {
-        *(.data)
+        *(.text*)
     }
 
+    .rodata : { *(.rodata*) }
+    .data : { *(.data*) }
     .bss : {
-        *(.bss)
+        *(.bss*)
         *(COMMON)
     }
 
-    . = ALIGN(4096);
-    __stack_top = .;
-    . += 128K;
-    __stack_bottom = .;
+    .stack (NOLOAD) : {
+        . = ALIGN(4);
+        . = . + 0x1000;
+    }
+
+    .heap (NOLOAD) : {
+        . = ALIGN(4);
+        . = . + 0x10000;
+    }
 }

kernel/memory.c

@@ -0,0 +1,138 @@
+#include "memory.h"
+
+/* note: this is a stub, please use care as theres duplicate functions in utils implementation 
+/* --------------------------------------------------------------------- *
+ *  Helper: copy a single byte (used by both memcpy and memmove)
+ * --------------------------------------------------------------------- */
+static inline void byte_copy_forward(uint8_t *dst, const uint8_t *src, size_t n)
+{
+    while (n--) *dst++ = *src++;
+}
+
+static inline void byte_copy_backward(uint8_t *dst, const uint8_t *src, size_t n)
+{
+    dst += n; src += n;
+    while (n--) *--dst = *--src;
+}
+
+/* --------------------------------------------------------------------- *
+ *  memcpy  –  no overlap allowed (behaviour undefined if overlap)
+ * --------------------------------------------------------------------- */
+void *memcpy(void *restrict dst, const void *restrict src, size_t n)
+{
+    uint8_t *d = (uint8_t *)dst;
+    const uint8_t *s = (const uint8_t *)src;
+
+#if defined(MEMORY_OPTIMIZED)
+    /* Align destination to 4-byte boundary */
+    size_t align = (uintptr_t)d & 3U;
+    if (align) {
+        size_t head = 4 - align;
+        if (head > n) head = n;
+        byte_copy_forward(d, s, head);
+        d += head; s += head; n -= head;
+    }
+
+    /* 32-bit word copy – safe because we already aligned dst */
+    {
+        uint32_t *d32 = (uint32_t *)d;
+        const uint32_t *s32 = (const uint32_t *)s;
+        size_t words = n / 4;
+        while (words--) *d32++ = *s32++;
+        d = (uint8_t *)d32;
+        s = (const uint8_t *)s32;
+        n &= 3;
+    }
+#endif
+
+    byte_copy_forward(d, s, n);
+    return dst;
+}
+
+/* --------------------------------------------------------------------- *
+ *  memmove – handles overlapping regions correctly
+ * --------------------------------------------------------------------- */
+void *memmove(void *dst, const void *src, size_t n)
+{
+    uint8_t *d = (uint8_t *)dst;
+    const uint8_t *s = (const uint8_t *)src;
+
+    if (n == 0 || dst == src)
+        return dst;
+
+    if (d < s) {                     /* copy forward */
+#if defined(MEMORY_OPTIMIZED)
+        /* Same fast path as memcpy when no overlap */
+        size_t align = (uintptr_t)d & 3U;
+        if (align) {
+            size_t head = 4 - align;
+            if (head > n) head = n;
+            byte_copy_forward(d, s, head);
+            d += head; s += head; n -= head;
+        }
+        {
+            uint32_t *d32 = (uint32_t *)d;
+            const uint32_t *s32 = (const uint32_t *)s;
+            size_t words = n / 4;
+            while (words--) *d32++ = *s32++;
+            d = (uint8_t *)d32;
+            s = (const uint8_t *)s32;
+            n &= 3;
+        }
+#endif
+        byte_copy_forward(d, s, n);
+    } else {                         /* copy backward */
+        byte_copy_backward(d, s, n);
+    }
+    return dst;
+}
+
+/* --------------------------------------------------------------------- *
+ *  memcmp  – lexicographical compare
+ * --------------------------------------------------------------------- */
+int memcmp(const void *s1, const void *s2, size_t n)
+{
+    const uint8_t *a = (const uint8_t *)s1;
+    const uint8_t *b = (const uint8_t *)s2;
+
+#if defined(MEMORY_OPTIMIZED)
+    /* Align to 4-byte boundary */
+    size_t align = (uintptr_t)a & 3U;
+    if (align && align == ((uintptr_t)b & 3U)) {
+        size_t head = 4 - align;
+        if (head > n) head = n;
+        while (head--) {
+            int diff = *a++ - *b++;
+            if (diff) return diff;
+        }
+        n -= head;
+    }
+
+    {
+        const uint32_t *a32 = (const uint32_t *)a;
+        const uint32_t *b32 = (const uint32_t *)b;
+        size_t words = n / 4;
+        while (words--) {
+            uint32_t va = *a32++, vb = *b32++;
+            if (va != vb) {
+                /* byte-wise fallback for the differing word */
+                const uint8_t *pa = (const uint8_t *)(a32 - 1);
+                const uint8_t *pb = (const uint8_t *)(b32 - 1);
+                for (int i = 0; i < 4; ++i) {
+                    int diff = pa[i] - pb[i];
+                    if (diff) return diff;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        a = (const uint8_t *)a32;
+        b = (const uint8_t *)b32;
+        n &= 3;
+    }
+#endif
+
+    while (n--) {
+        int diff = *a++ - *b++;
+        if (diff) return diff;
+    }
+    return 0;
+}

kernel/memory.h

@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+#ifndef MEMORY_H
+#define MEMORY_H
+
+#include <stddef.h>   /* size_t, NULL */
+#include <stdint.h>   /* uint8_t */
+
+#ifdef __cplusplus
+extern "C" {
+#endif
+
+/* C11 / POSIX-2004 signatures */
+void *memcpy(void *restrict dst, const void *restrict src, size_t n);
+void *memmove(void *dst, const void *src, size_t n);
+int   memcmp(const void *s1, const void *s2, size_t n);
+
+/* Optional fast-path using 32-bit loads (x86 only) */
+#if defined(__i386__) && !defined(MEMORY_NO_OPT)
+# define MEMORY_OPTIMIZED 1
+#endif
+
+#ifdef __cplusplus
+}
+#endif
+
+#endif /* MEMORY_H */

kernel/mouse.c

@@ -10,7 +10,7 @@ static mouse_data_t mouse_data;
 // Read USB mouse data
 mouse_data_t usb_read_mouse(void) {
     uint8_t buffer[3]; // USB HID Mouse reports typically use 3 bytes
-    if (usb_interrupt_transfer(buffer, sizeof(buffer))) { // Ensure buffer is filled
+    if (usb_interrupt_transfer()) { // Ensure buffer is filled
         // Process the received data
         mouse_data.x += buffer[1]; // X movement
         mouse_data.y += buffer[2]; // Y movement

kernel/paging.c

@@ -3,9 +3,9 @@
 #include <stdint.h>
 #include <stddef.h>
 
-page_directory_entry_t *page_directory = (page_directory_entry_t *)0x100000;
-page_table_entry_t *page_table = (page_table_entry_t *)0x101000;
-page_table_entry_t *heap_page_table = (page_table_entry_t *)0x102000; // Located right after the page directory
+page_directory_entry_t *page_directory = (page_directory_entry_t *)0x200000;
+page_table_entry_t     *page_table     = (page_table_entry_t *)0x201000;
+page_table_entry_t     *heap_page_table = (page_table_entry_t *)0x202000;
 
 // Helper function to set up the page directory entry
 void set_page_directory(page_directory_entry_t *dir) {
@@ -37,12 +37,12 @@ void enable_paging() {
     uint32_t cr0;
 
     // Load page directory into CR3
-    asm volatile("mov %0, %%cr3" : : "r"(page_directory));
+    __asm__("mov %0, %%cr3" : : "r"(page_directory));
 
     // Enable paging (set the PG bit in CR0)
-    asm volatile("mov %%cr0, %0" : "=r"(cr0));
+    __asm__("mov %%cr0, %0" : "=r"(cr0));
     cr0 |= 0x80000000;  // Set the PG (paging) bit
-    asm volatile("mov %0, %%cr0" : : "r"(cr0));
+    __asm__("mov %0, %%cr0" : : "r"(cr0));
 }
 
 // Initialize paging: set up the page directory and enable paging

kernel/panic.c

@@ -14,6 +14,6 @@ void panic(const char *message) {
 
     // Halt the system
     while (true) {
-        asm volatile ("cli; hlt");
+        __asm__("cli; hlt");
     }
 }

kernel/print.c

@@ -1,13 +1,14 @@
-#include <stdio.h>
 #include <stdarg.h>
 #include "print.h"
+#include "serial.h"
+#include "terminal.h"
 
 void my_putchar(char ch) {
     // Write a single character to standard output
     // In a freestanding environment, you might need to implement this differently
     // For now, we will use the standard putchar for demonstration
     // Replace this with your own implementation if needed
-    putchar(ch);
+    terminal_putchar(ch);
 }
 
 void print_string(const char *str) {
@@ -33,7 +34,9 @@ void my_printf(const char *format, ...) {
                 case 'd': { // Integer
                     int num = va_arg(args, int);
                     char buffer[20]; // Buffer to hold the string representation
-                    snprintf(buffer, sizeof(buffer), "%d", num);
+                    
+                    //TODO: implement `snprintf()`
+                    //snprintf(buffer, sizeof(buffer), "%d", num);
                     print_string(buffer);
                     break;
                 }
@@ -56,29 +59,44 @@ void my_printf(const char *format, ...) {
     va_end(args);
 }
 
+void print_hex(uint32_t val, int include_prefix, int suppress_leading_zeros) { 
+    char hex_chars[] = "0123456789ABCDEF";
+    char buffer[11]; // 8 hex digits + "0x" + null terminator
+    int pos = 10;    // Start from end of buffer (null terminator)
 
-void print_hex(unsigned int num) {
-    // Buffer to hold the hexadecimal representation
-    char buffer[9]; // 8 hex digits + null terminator
-    buffer[8] = '\0'; // Null-terminate the string
+    // Null-terminate the buffer
+    buffer[pos--] = '\0';
 
+    // Convert value to hex digits
     for (int i = 7; i >= 0; i--) {
-        int digit = num & 0xF; // Get the last 4 bits
-        buffer[i] = (digit < 10) ? (digit + '0') : (digit - 10 + 'A'); // Convert to hex character
-        num >>= 4; // Shift right by 4 bits
+        int digit = val & 0xF; // Get last 4 bits
+        buffer[pos--] = hex_chars[digit];
+        val >>= 4; // Shift right by 4 bits
     }
 
-    // Print the buffer, skipping leading zeros
-    int leading_zero = 1;
-    for (int i = 0; i < 8; i++) {
-        if (buffer[i] != '0') {
-            leading_zero = 0; // Found a non-zero digit
-        }
-        if (!leading_zero) {
-            my_putchar(buffer[i]);
-        }
+    // Add "0x" prefix if requested
+    if (include_prefix) {
+        buffer[pos--] = 'x';
+        buffer[pos--] = '0';
     }
-    if (leading_zero) {
-        my_putchar('0'); // If all were zeros, print a single '0'
+
+    // Determine start of output (skip leading zeros if requested)
+    int start = include_prefix ? 0 : 2; // Start after "0x" if prefix included
+    if (suppress_leading_zeros && !include_prefix) {
+        int i = start;
+        while (i < 9 && buffer[i] == '0') {
+            i++;
+        }
+        if (i == 10) {
+            // All zeros, output single '0'
+            terminal_write("0");
+            serial_write("0");
+            return;
+        }
+        start = i;
     }
-}
+
+    // Output the result
+    terminal_write(buffer + start);
+    serial_write(buffer + start);
+}

kernel/print.h

@@ -1,9 +1,11 @@
 #ifndef PRINT_H
 #define PRINT_H
 
+#include "types.h"
+
 void print_string(const char *str);
 void my_printf(const char *format, ...);
-void print_hex(unsigned int num);
+void print_hex(uint32_t val, int include_prefix, int suppress_leading_zeros);
 void my_putchar(char ch);
 
 #endif

kernel/scheduler.c

@@ -1,7 +1,12 @@
 #include "scheduler.h"
 #include <stddef.h>
 
+// Defined in context_switch.s
+extern void ctx_switch(uint32_t **old_sp_ptr, uint32_t *new_sp);
+
 static task_t tasks[MAX_TASKS];
+
+// Stack memory area. Note: x86 Stacks grow DOWN from high to low addresses.
 static uint32_t task_stacks[MAX_TASKS][STACK_SIZE / sizeof(uint32_t)];
 
 static int task_count = 0;
@@ -9,7 +14,6 @@ static task_t *task_list = NULL;
 static task_t *current_task = NULL;
 
 void scheduler_init() {
-    // Initialize task list, etc.
     task_list = NULL;
     current_task = NULL;
     task_count = 0;
@@ -20,16 +24,42 @@ void scheduler_add_task(void (*entry)(void)) {
 
     task_t *new_task = &tasks[task_count];
     new_task->id = task_count;
-    new_task->entry = entry;
 
-    // Simulate a stack pointer pointing to the "top" of the stack
-    new_task->stack_ptr = &task_stacks[task_count][STACK_SIZE / sizeof(uint32_t) - 1];
+    // 1. Calculate the top of the stack (High Address)
+    // We point to the very end of the array.
+    uint32_t *sp = &task_stacks[task_count][STACK_SIZE / sizeof(uint32_t)];
 
+    // 2. "Forge" the stack frame to look like ctx_switch saved it.
+    // We push values onto the stack by decrementing the pointer and writing.
+
+    // --- Return Address (EIP) ---
+    sp--; 
+    *sp = (uint32_t)entry; // When ctx_switch does 'ret', it pops this and jumps to 'entry'
+
+    // --- EFLAGS ---
+    sp--;
+    *sp = 0x00000202; // Reserved bit set, Interrupts Enabled (IF=1). Important!
+
+    // --- General Purpose Registers (PUSHA/POPA layout) ---
+    // Order: EAX, ECX, EDX, EBX, ESP, EBP, ESI, EDI
+    // We initialize them to 0 or meaningful values.
+    sp--; *sp = 0; // EAX
+    sp--; *sp = 0; // ECX
+    sp--; *sp = 0; // EDX
+    sp--; *sp = 0; // EBX
+    sp--; *sp = 0; // ESP (Ignored by POPA)
+    sp--; *sp = 0; // EBP
+    sp--; *sp = 0; // ESI
+    sp--; *sp = 0; // EDI
+
+    // Save this final stack location to the TCB
+    new_task->stack_ptr = sp;
     new_task->next = NULL;
 
-    // Add to task list
+    // 3. Add to linked list
     if (task_list == NULL) {
         task_list = new_task;
+        current_task = new_task; // Make sure we have a current task to start
     } else {
         task_t *tail = task_list;
         while (tail->next) {
@@ -42,21 +72,25 @@ void scheduler_add_task(void (*entry)(void)) {
 }
 
 void scheduler_schedule() {
-    // Very basic round-robin switch
-    if (current_task && current_task->next) {
+    if (!current_task) return;
+
+    task_t *prev = current_task;
+    
+    // Round-robin logic
+    if (current_task->next) {
         current_task = current_task->next;
     } else {
-        current_task = task_list; // Loop back
+        current_task = task_list;
     }
 
-    // Call context switch or simulate yielding to current_task
-    // In real system: context_switch_to(current_task)
-    if (current_task && current_task->entry) {
-        current_task->entry();  // Simulate switching by calling
+    // Perform the ACTUAL context switch
+    // We pass the address of the previous task's stack pointer storage
+    // and the value of the new task's stack pointer.
+    if (prev != current_task) {
+        ctx_switch(&prev->stack_ptr, current_task->stack_ptr);
     }
 }
 
 void scheduler_yield() {
-    // Stub: manually call schedule for cooperative multitasking
     scheduler_schedule();
 }

kernel/scheduler.h

@@ -4,18 +4,21 @@
 #include <stdint.h>
 
 #define MAX_TASKS 8
-#define STACK_SIZE 1024
+#define STACK_SIZE 1024 // in bytes
 
 typedef struct task {
     uint32_t id;
-    void (*entry)(void);
-    uint32_t *stack_ptr;
+    
+    // The most important field: 
+    // Where was the stack pointer when we last left this task?
+    uint32_t *stack_ptr; 
+    
     struct task *next;
 } task_t;
 
 void scheduler_init();
 void scheduler_add_task(void (*entry)(void));
 void scheduler_schedule();
-void scheduler_yield();  // Optional for cooperative scheduling
+void scheduler_yield();
 
 #endif // SCHEDULER_H

kernel/shell.c

@@ -2,8 +2,6 @@
 #include "keyboard.h"
 #include "terminal.h"
 #include "print.h"
-#include <stdio.h>
-#include <string.h>
 #include "string_utils.h"
 
 void execute(char *input) {
@@ -49,7 +47,7 @@ void shell_loop()
             {
                 if (index < sizeof(input) - 1) {
                     input[index++] = c;
-                    putchar(c);
+                    terminal_putchar(c);
                 }
             }
         }

kernel/terminal.c

@@ -12,6 +12,7 @@ static uint16_t* const vga_buffer = (uint16_t*) VGA_ADDRESS;
 static uint8_t cursor_x = 0;
 static uint8_t cursor_y = 0;
 static uint8_t current_color = WHITE_ON_BLACK;
+static uint16_t last_cursor_pos = 0xFFFF;
 
 void terminal_initialize(void) {
     for (uint16_t y = 0; y < VGA_HEIGHT; y++) {
@@ -96,8 +97,10 @@ void terminal_clear(void) {
     update_cursor();
 }
 
-void update_cursor() {
+void update_cursor(void) {
     uint16_t pos = cursor_y * VGA_WIDTH + cursor_x;
+    if (pos == last_cursor_pos) return;
+    last_cursor_pos = pos;
 
     outb(0x3D4, 0x0F);
     outb(0x3D5, (uint8_t)(pos & 0xFF));

kernel/threading.c

@@ -1,8 +1,9 @@
+#include "malloc.h"
+#include "print.h"
 #include "threading.h"
-#include <stdlib.h>
+#include "types.h"
+#include "utils.h"
 #include <stdint.h>
-#include <stdio.h>
-#include <string.h>
 
 #define MAX_THREADS 16           // Maximum number of threads
 #define THREAD_STACK_SIZE 8192   // Stack size for each thread
@@ -27,7 +28,7 @@ void thread_init(void) {
 // Create a new thread
 void thread_create(Thread *thread __attribute__((unused)), void (*start_routine)(void *), void *arg) {
     if (num_threads >= MAX_THREADS) {
-        printf("Error: Maximum thread count reached.\n");
+        my_printf("Error: Maximum thread count reached.\n");
         return;
     }
 
@@ -98,7 +99,7 @@ void scheduler(void) {
 void context_switch(Thread *next) {
     // For simplicity, context switching in this example would involve saving/restoring registers.
     // In a real system, you would need to save the CPU state (registers) and restore the next thread's state.
-    printf("Switching to thread...\n");
+    my_printf("Switching to thread...\n");
     next->start_routine(next->arg);  // Start running the next thread
 }
 

kernel/timer.c

@@ -3,6 +3,7 @@
 #include "isr.h"
 #include "terminal.h"
 #include "stdio.h"
+#include "utils.h"
 
 static volatile uint32_t tick = 0;
 

kernel/types.c

@@ -1,9 +1 @@
 #include "types.h"
-
-// Example: Basic memory helper (unnecessary if libc exists)
-void *memset(void *dest, int value, size_t len) {
-    unsigned char *ptr = (unsigned char *)dest;
-    while (len-- > 0)
-        *ptr++ = (unsigned char)value;
-    return dest;
-}

kernel/utils.c

@@ -1,6 +1,4 @@
 #include "utils.h"
-#include "serial.h"
-#include "terminal.h"
 
 static void reverse(char* str, int len) {
     int start = 0;
@@ -79,13 +77,9 @@ char* utoa(unsigned int value, char* str, int base) {
     return str;
 }
 
-void print_hex(uint32_t val) {
-    char hex_chars[] = "0123456789ABCDEF";
-    char buf[11] = "0x00000000";
-    for (int i = 9; i >= 2; i--) {
-        buf[i] = hex_chars[val & 0xF];
-        val >>= 4;
-    }
-    terminal_write(buf);
-    serial_write(buf);
-}
+void *memset(void *dest, int value, size_t len) {
+    unsigned char *ptr = (unsigned char *)dest;
+    while (len-- > 0)
+        *ptr++ = (unsigned char)value;
+    return dest;
+}

kernel/utils.h

@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 #ifndef UTILS_H
 #define UTILS_H
-#include <stdint.h>
 
+#include "types.h"
 
 // Convert integer to string (base is typically 10, 16, etc.)
 char* itoa(int value, char* str, int base);
@@ -9,6 +9,6 @@ char* itoa(int value, char* str, int base);
 // Convert unsigned integer to string (base is typically 10, 16, etc.)
 char* utoa(unsigned int value, char* str, int base);
 
-void print_hex(uint32_t val);
+void *memset(void *dest, int value, size_t len);
 
 #endif // UTILS_H